Space Shuttle - The First 100 Flights

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3|Mission Design and Planning |JSC|(None)|Designing and planning a Space Shuttle mission, which meets customer requirements and is consistent with the capabilities of the Shuttle system, is a complex, multi-phased process. Once a Shuttle flight is requested, program engineers evaluate customer requirements and determine the feasibility of the flight and the compatibility of the payloads with the Shuttle systems and operational capabilities. The next step involves designing and developing the necessary structural, power and data interfaces between payloads and the Orbiter vehicle, designing a launch and orbital trajectory and performance plan that places the Orbiter in the desired orbit for conducting the mission, and developing ground rules by which the mission will be conducted. Requirements for critical consumable resources like fuel, oxygen and water are also analyzed to determine proper vehicle loading for the mission. The outcome of these efforts is a thoroughly documented Flight Data File for each mission, which consists of technical references, operational procedures and timelines by which each flight is executed. These plans cover nominal operations, contingency operations, troubleshooting of spacecraft system failures and on-orbit repair. When working with another space vehicle, such as the International Space Station, the planning process must also include rendezvous and proximity operations. 4|Software Development and Integration |JSC|Shuttle Avionics Integration Laboratory (SAIL) Software Production and Integration Facility (SPIF)|The Space Shuttle general purpose computers rely on complex, error-free software to assure accurate response and perfect synchronization of key Shuttle systems. Shuttle flight software engineers develop, test and verify the Primary Avionics Software System (PASS), which is loaded into the Shuttle computers to manage flight control systems, engines, data networks, communications, power and environmental systems aboard the Orbiter throughout all phases of flight. For crew safety and vehicle loss prevention, the Backup Flight System (BFS) was also created to provide basic Guidance, Navigation, and Control (GN&C) protection against generic software errors, hardware failures, crew interfaces and mechanization problems with the primary system that could cause a loss of control of the vehicle. In addition, some limited on-orbit capabilities are provided for use during mission transition periods such as from ascent to on-orbit operations or from on-orbit operations to de-orbit operations. Also, in the unlikely event of primary system failure, an on-orbit flight control attitude hold mode is provided. Software and simulation engineers also support ongoing upgrades and changes in vehicle flight software and test the performance of new avionics hardware. Upgrades in vehicle flight software are delivered in sets called ôoperational increments.ö Each OI completely replaces the previous software set and features incremental improvements in the speed, reliability and capability of the software. Each OI undergoes extensive independent verification to assure that it is clean and ready to fly. The Shuttle Avionics Integration Laboratory (SAIL), located within the Johnson Space Center, building 16, is NASA´s only facility for conducting full-scale integrated flight hardware and software verification testing for all Shuttle flights. The SAIL is a central facility where avionics and related flight-like hardware, flight software, flight procedures and associated ground support equipment are brought together for integration and mission verification testing. 5|Flight Operations|JSC|Mission Control Center (MCC) Moscow Mission Control Center (TsUP)|Once a mission is designed according to the customerÆs requirements, the specific procedures needed to execute the mission are developed and verified. Following rigorous functional skills and joint team training, flight controllers under the leadership of a Flight Director are responsible for overseeing the vehicle and crew as they carry out each aspect of the mission from launch through landing. The Mission Control Center (MCC) at the Johnson Space Center, in Houston, provides for all command and control of NASAÆs human space flight operations. The facility includes a number of flight control rooms consisting of multiple workstations from which flight controllers can monitor Shuttle, Space Station and payload performance and send commands to vehicle systems. One of those control rooms is the Payload Operations Control Center where payload customers monitor the status of their operations and can send commands directly to their own vehicle or experiment aboard the Shuttle. The Shuttle flight control team in the MCC takes control of Shuttle operations after the solid rocket motors ignite and the Shuttle is released from the pad at the Kennedy Space Center. The team manages all voice and data links between the flight vehicle and the ground facilities, monitors progress and status of Orbiter systems and advises the Flight Director and Shuttle crew on technical, procedural and scheduling issues. The controllers include experts in every vehicle system and subsystem such as mechanical, electrical, thermal, data processing, guidance and navigation, propulsion and structural. They also include operational expertise in flight dynamics, rendezvous, EVA, payload operations and real-time flight planning. With the advent of cooperative international space operations aboard the Mir, during the first phase of the International Space Station program, flight operations were conducted jointly with a Russian team at the Moscow Mission Control Center (TsUP) in Korlov, just outside of Moscow. A small contingent of U.S. flight controllers, called the Houston Support Group (HSG), remain at the TsUP to oversee the involvement of American astronauts aboard Russian flight vehicles through the ISS program. A joint team at JSC and the TsUP will also maintain primary control of International Space Station operations. Around the clock continuous support will be provided whenever the station has a crew onboard. These teams have two primary responsibilities - mission safety and mission success, in that order of priority. 6|Payload Integration|JSC|(none)|A critical part of any space mission is ensuring the payload to be delivered is properly interfaced with its launch vehicle. USA's world-class payload integration teams work closely with the payload contractors û whether it be a scientific experiment or a Space Station module û to ensure the hardware is properly stowed in the vehicle payload bay and ready for flight. 8|Integrated Logistics|KSC|Integrated Logistics|With more than one million parts on the Space Shuttle, the timely delivery of the required components, materials, tools, equipment, and sub-contracted services is essential to flight safety and mission success. Responsibility for the tracking, manufacturing, repairing and transporting of each of those 1 million parts belongs to USAÆs Integrated Logistics organization. Located in the City of Cape Canaveral, the NASA Shuttle Logistics Depot is the focal point for the repair and manufacturing of parts used on the Space Shuttle Orbiters. The entire NSLD complex encompasses eight buildings with more than 290,000 square feet of space. The DepotÆs goal is to shorten the pipeline for repairs, thus reducing the number of spares needed for the vehicles. Technicians at NSLD complete about 80 percent of the hardware repair tasks, 90 percent of which is done realtime. Key components of NSLD include the Avionics/Electronics Lab, a state of the art facility whose work has include avionics hardware ranging from cables to analog, digital and Rf electronics; the Mechanical Manufacturing and Repair Shop, a large capacity machine shop that produces or repairs small precision parts to the large complex components; and the Materials and Processes Lab which performs a broad spectrum of non-destructive tests with advanced equipment. NSLDÆs capabilities also include resources at several satellite facilities including the Far Field Antenna Range and the Hypergolic Maintenance Facility, both at the Kennedy Space Center; and the Lithium Hydroxide (LiOH) Lab at the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station. Also on site at the Kennedy Space Center is the Logistics Building, a 324,640 square-foot facility located south of the Vehicle Assembly Building. The facility houses 190,000 space shuttle hardware parts and includes a state-of-the-art parts retrieval system, which contains automated handling equipment to find and retrieve specific Space Shuttle parts. Another key function of the Integrated Logistics operation is the manufacturing and repair of the heat-resistant tiles and thermal blankets that shield the Orbiter from the deep cold and intense heat of space. This work is completed at the Thermal Protection System Facility (TPSF) located on-site at KSC. A two-story, 44,000-square-foot building located directly across from the Orbiter Processing Facility Bays 1 and 2, the TPSF houses the personnel and equipment needed to produce and refurbish the some 24,000 tiles, 2,300 Flexible Insulation Blankets, 5,400 Thermal Control System Blankets, 1,860 square feet of Felt Reusable Surface Insulation and other materials which protect the Orbiter. In recent years, the NSLD has serviced multiple programs besides the Space Shuttle including the International Space Station, various payloads and NASAÆs X-vehicles. 9|Space Flight Training|JSC|Neutral Buoyancy Lab (NBL) Mockup and Trainer Facility Mission Control Center (MCC) Integrated Training Facility Shuttle Mission Simulator (SMS)|Training begins the moment the astronauts or flight controllers arrive at the Johnson Space Center, in Houston. It consists of basic training to develop and maintain knowledge and skills, followed by mission-specific training to prepare for an assigned Shuttle flight. Training evolves in complexity from classroom lessons and workbooks to computer-based training, standalone simulator training, and finally integrated team simulations in high-fidelity spacecraft simulators and control centers in the final weeks before a mission. Astronaut Training Astronaut candidates receive their basic training at the Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas, attending classes on basic science and technology, guidance and navigation, orbital dynamics, and geology. They also receive training in land and sea survival. They get their first taste of zero-gravity in the KC-135 zero gravity aircraft, also known as the ôVomit Comet.ö Formal Shuttle training begins with computer-based training on the various Shuttle systems. The next step is single systems training which involves learning to operate those Shuttle systems using checklists and single system trainers under the guidance of an instructor. After single systems training, the astronauts graduate to more complex flight training in the Shuttle Mission Simulator (SMS) û a working, high fidelity replica of the actual Space Shuttle crew compartment. The SMS provides for integrated task training in all phases of flight û pre-launch, ascent, orbit, entry and landing. Lessons range from tasks as simple as sending a fax from space to more complex activities like reconfiguring Shuttle computers and operating experiments. In the Mockup and Trainer Facility, they use full-scale crew compartment mockups for habitation training and system orientations. Astronauts who may operate the Remote Manipulator System (RMS) train there with a hydraulically operated mechanical arm, learning to move objects into and out of a full-scale mockup of the OrbiterÆs payload bay. Astronauts train for space walks at the Sonny Carter Training Facility in the Neutral Bouyancy Laboratory (NBL) which uses a huge pool and buoyancy-controlled suits and objects to emulate zero-gravity. Pilots get additional flight training in the Shuttle Training Aircraft û a modified Gulfstream II which responds to pilots much like a Space Shuttle would during approach and landing. They maintain their razor-sharp piloting skills and reflexes by frequently flying T-38 training jets. Flight Controller Training Flight controllers also receive basic training in all Shuttle systems and flight operations disciplines. Once assigned to a specific system or flight operations discipline, they must be come experts in that particular area û understanding how the Orbiter system works, knowing the procedures and ground rules for operating those systems and learning the skills and discipline needed to work in Mission Control. Flight controller training also evolves in complexity from books and manuals to single system trainers and console trainers. Eventually, they will train in the Mission Control Center as part of a team of experts representing every key system or aspect of Space Shuttle operations. The job of the instructors is to ensure that the Shuttle crew, the Space Station crew and the flight controllers in the Mission Control Center are well prepared for any situation that may arise during the course of a mission, both planned and unplanned. Before each mission, flight controllers and astronaut crews train together in joint integrated simulations that link the SMS with MCC to create a flight-like environment for the final phase of preparation, assuring that the entire team is "go" for flight. 10|Vehicle Processing|KSC|Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB) Orbiter Processing Facility (OPF) Assembly and Refurbishment Facility (ARF)|From the time a Shuttle stops on the runway following a successful mission, it is being prepared for its next flight. Each Orbiter is subjected to a planned sequence of testing, reconfiguration, maintenance and verification to make it ready for the next mission. That process, which is called "The Flow," takes two to three months and involves thousands of tasks. The Flow begins when the vehicle is towed from the Shuttle Landing Facility runway into one of three bays of the Orbiter Processing Facility (OPF). OPF-1 and OPF-2 consist of two 29,000 square foot high bays, while OPF-3 is across the street. OPF-3 was previously called the Orbiter Maintenance & Refurbishment Facility (OMRF) but has been upgraded to a fully functioning Orbiter Processing Facility. OPF-3 is a 50,000 square foot facility that consists of a high bay, a two-story low bay area and Space Shuttle Main Engine shop. Once in the OPF, the Orbiter first undergoes procedures to remove residual fuels and explosive ordnance items. The OrbiterÆs previous mission payloads are removed, and the vehicle is fully inspected, tested and refurbished for its next mission. As it is prepared for the upcoming flight, the Space ShuttleÆs main engines as well as the avionics, electrical, hydraulic, mechanical and structural systems are serviced. Extensive checkouts are performed to examine and repair the protective tiles on the surface of the vehicle, and the orbital maneuvering system and reaction control system thrusters are tested. These functions require approximately two-thirds of the time between missions. While the Orbiter is being processed, the external tank that carries the cryogenic propellants for the ShuttleÆs main engines and the twin Solid Rocket Boosters (SRBs) are installed on a Mobile Launcher Platform (MLP) in the giant Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB). The VAB is one of the largest buildings in the world. It is more than 500 feet tall, taller than the Statue of Liberty and larger than the Pentagon in cubic meters. Nearly four Empire State Buildings, if disassembled, could fit inside the VAB. Originally built to house the Saturn V rockets during the Apollo era, the VAB was modified to support Space Shuttle operations. The ôbuild upö in the VAB begins when integrated SRB segments are transferred from a nearby assembly and checkout facility and then hoisted onto the launcher platform where the segments are mated together to form two complete boosters. Prior to this time, a new external tank û the only piece of the Shuttle System not recovered and reused -- is shipped to KSC by barge from Lockheed-MartinÆs production facilities in Michoud, Mississippi. When the boosters are complete, the ET is maneuvered carefully into place and attached to the ôstack.ö When servicing of the Orbiter is completed in the OPF, the vehicle is towed on its landing gear to the VAB transfer aisle. There a 300-ton crane lifts the Orbiter, shifts it into its vertical launch position and with precise accuracy moves it into position where it is attached to the waiting boosters and tank. At this point, each of the major components has been checked out as an individual unit. Work proceeds to verify the integrity of the Space Shuttle vehicle system as a whole, as the final tasks are completed to make it ready for the launch pad. While the Space Shuttle reaches speeds as high as 18,000 miles per hour to attain orbital velocity, it travels at the rate of only one mile per hour on the trip to the launch pad aboard a 6 million-pound tracked vehicle called the Crawler Transporter. Each the size of a baseball infield, the two Crawler Transporters at the Kennedy Space Center are the worldÆs largest tracked vehicles. Each individual shoe in the transporter tracks weighs one ton. In total, the Shuttle stack, launcher platform and crawler transporter weighs 18.5-million pounds. During the trip to the launch pad, the Orbiter is kept vertical within plus or minus 10 minutes of arc, about the diameter of a basketball. Leveling systems within the crawler keeps the platform level while negotiating the 5 percent grade leading up to the pad surface. The 3-4 mile trip to the launch pads burns about 150 gallons of diesel fuel per mile. Because of crawlerÆs weight, the road from the Vehicle Assembly Building to the Launch Pad was specially constructed to handle the tremendous weight of the crawler and its cargo. Seven feet thick and about the same width as an eight-lane highway, the crawlerway is constructed of graded limestone, fill, asphalt sealer and river rock. The trip to the pad takes about 8 hours before the Space Shuttle is firmly in place on the launch pad and a service structure is rotated into place. 11|Launch Operations|KSC|Launch Control Center (LCC) Launch Complex 39 - Pad A; Pad B|Once the Space Shuttle is securely in place at either Launch Pad 39A or 39B, the final phase of launch preparations begin. Throughout this time, operations at the launch pad are controlled from the Launch Control Center (LCC), the electronic "brain" of Launch Complex 39. Launch Complex 39´s Pad A and Pad B were originally designed to support the Apollo program and were modified for Space Shuttle launch operations. Pads 39-A and 39-B are virtually identical and roughly octagonal in shape. The distance between pads is 8,715 ft. The pad base contains 68,000 cubic yards of concrete, and enough pipe to reach from Orlando to Miami. A key milestone in the final preparations is the Terminal Countdown Demonstration Test (TCDT) which simulates with the crew and launch team the final hours of the countdown and serves as a dress rehearsal for the launch. The test ends in a simulated ignition and automated shutdown of the Orbiter´s main engines. TCDT supports an important function for the KSC launch team. During what is called the malfunction run, the test simulates real-time failures of vehicle and ground systems. As launch day nears, propellants are loaded, flight crew equipment is stowed and range safety ordnance connections are completed just before the countdown starts. It is during this period that NASA conducts a comprehensive Flight Readiness Review to address every facet of the pre-launch process. The Space Shuttle launch countdown is a routine and standardized timeline of events that begins about 43 hours before the launch with a call to stations from the Launch Control Center. This verifies that all required personnel are ready to support the countdown activities. The final hours of the count include a final mission software update, completion of propellant system purges, propellant line chilling, crew ingress and lift-off. The Space Shuttle is launched in a vertical position, with thrust provided by two solid rocket boosters, called the first stage, and three Space Shuttle main engines, called the second stage. The three main liquid fuel engines ignite 6.6 seconds before liftoff, followed by ignition of the twin solid rocket boosters at T -0. To achieve orbit, the Shuttle must accelerate from zero to a speed of almost 18,000 miles per hour, a speed nine times as fast as the average rifle bullet. 12|Landing and Recovery Operations|KSC|Solid Rocket Booster Retrieval Vessel Shuttle Landing Facility (SLF) Contingency Landing Sites|Although control of the flight switches to the Mission Control Center in Houston as the Space Shuttle clears the tower, the responsibilities of the launch operations team are far from over. At approximately two minutes after the Space Shuttle lifts off from the launch pad, the twin Solid Rocket Boosters have expended their fuel. The boosters separate from the Orbiter and begin their long tumble back to Earth where two retrieval ships are waiting. NASAÆs two retrieval ships that perform the SRB recovery -- Freedom Star and Liberty Star -- are uniquely designed and constructed for the task. The propulsion systems allows divers to work near the ship during operations at a greatly reduced risk and protect the endangered manatee population that inhabits regions of the Banana River where the ships are based. Each ship retrieves one booster. First, the main parachutes are brought on board with their shroud lines wound onto reels on the shipÆs deck. Then the 5,000-pound frustum is lifted from the water using the shipÆs power block and deck crane. With the chutes and frustum recovered, attention turns to the SRB. First the dive team installs a Diver-Operated Plug (DOP) in the nozzle of the booster. Air is pumped into the booster through the DOP, displacing water within the casing. As the process continues, the booster rises in the water until it becomes top-heavy. It falls horizontally, like a log in the water. Air pumping continues until all water is expelled from the empty casing. The booster is secured to the recovery ship with a towline and the trip back to NASAÆs Hangar AF on Cape Canaveral Air Station begins. Throughout the mission, recovery crews are on site at designated contingency landing strips throughout the world to support an emergency landing and ensure the safety of the vehicle before the astronauts egress. The Shuttle can make an emergency landing, if necessary, at Ben Guerir Air Base, Morocco; Moron Air Base and Zaragosa Air Base, Spain; and Yundum International Airport, Banjul, The Gambia. The U.S. sites are at Edwards Air Force Base, California, and White Sands, New Mexico. KSCÆs Shuttle Landing Facility (SLF was specially designed for returning Space Shuttle orbiters. The runway is longer and wider than those found in most commercial airports, yet comparable in size to runways designed for research and development facilities. Although a single landing strip, it is considered two runways, depending on the approach, from either the northwest on Runway 15 or from the southeast on Runway 33. The orbiter differs in at least one major aspect from conventional aircraft; it is unpowered during re-entry and landing so its high-speed glide must be perfectly executed the first time ù there is no go-around capability. The orbiter touchdown speed is 213 to 226 miles per hour. Although on call during an entire mission in case of an earlier-than-scheduled landing, the Orbiter Convoy normally begins recovery operations in earnest about two hours before the orbiter is scheduled to land. The convoy consists of about 25 specially designed vehicles or units and a team of about 150 trained personnel who assist the crew in leaving the orbiter, "safe" the orbiter, prepare it for towing, and tow the vehicle to the Orbiter Processing Facility where processing begins for its next mission. 13|Flight Crew Equipment Processing|JSC|Flight Crew Equipment Facility|Equipment that is used by Space Shuttle astronauts must meet the highest standards of safety, quality and reliability. From complex space suits to emergency escape equipment, flight crew equipment must work û first time, every time. Because when youÆre flying in space, a quick run to the hardware store is not an option. Flight crew equipment processing includes inspection, maintenance, repair and, in some cases, actual fabrication of: Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU) û Space suits worn by astronauts during their space walks and for crew training in the Neutral Buoyancy Lab and the Crew Compartment Trainers. Crew Escape Equipment û Launch/Entry suits and associated survival gear for use in the event of a malfunction of the Shuttle during ascent or re-entry. Crew Clothing - All of the clothing and personal hygiene items the crew uses during missions and for associated training. Camera Equipment û Sophisticated cameras used to film mission experiments, earth observations and public service downlinks for public broadcast. Locker Cushions - Custom cushions cut and formed to retain stowed hardware in the OrbiterÆs mid-deck lockers, flight deck lockers and airlock storage bags for each mission. Electronics - Power and data cables for flight/training, operational bioinstrumentation system hardware processing and altitude chamber support, communications hardware processing such as the extravehicular communications radio and wireless crew communication system processing, testing and design support of the Galley, processing and testing of camcorders and video tape recorder assemblies. Payload General Support Computers - Command and display of non-critical payloads and additional crew information services, logistics support, maintenance and repair, loaner pool support, real-time in-flight support and post flight evaluations of hardware. Batteries - Batteries of all types are required as power sources in space. Batteries are needed for equipment such as space suits, cameras, recorders and radios.